Oil and War: A Look at Curacao's Decolonization

The original intent of European powers having colonies in the New World was that of profit and global influence.  By the end of the 19th century, European colonies were beginning to be more of a burden than an asset to the home countries.  As that burden grew with slave revolts and nationalist movements, some European countries fought to keep their influence on their satellite colonies.  Others such as the Netherlands looked to allow their colonies to gain independence through diplomatic means.  After the Japanese surrender in World War II in 1945, the large dutch colony known as the Dutch East Indies declared independence as the country of Indonesia.  After an armed struggle diplomacy ensued and the Netherlands formerly recognized Indonesia as an independent nation in 1949.  This would greatly influence the action of the Netherlands towards its remaining colonies in the West:  Aruba, Bonaire, Suriname, and Curacao.  The discovery of oil on Curacao would also push further autonomy on that island.

In 1914, a large reservoir of oil was found on Curacao.  In strange turn of irony, where the large slave depot of Asiento had stood, a large oil refinery was built to take advantage of the new abundant resource.  This new refinery and the new services needed by the growing oil industry began a boom in employment opportunities for the citizens of Curacao and of immigrants.  The sudden influx of immigrants to take advantage of the job opportunities would eventually cause social unrest on the island as racial tensions would take hold.  The oil industry in Curacao would remain lucrative through out the 1970's.

These tensions would accumulate in May 1969 when strikes and riots would cause the Dutch to intervene.  The Dutch were compelled to intervene after the Statuut agreement between the Dutch Antilles and the home kingdom of the Netherlands in 1954.  During World War II, the Dutch Antilles were constantly harassed by German U-Boats and the Dutch could do little to defend them.  The island was used to refuel Allied planes and was a constant target for enemy attacks.  With growing autonomy movements and lack of defense, the Antilles looked for diplomatic means to change the constitutional policies of the home country.  They used World War II as an excuse.  This accumulated in the Statuut, or the Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.  This agreement made the Antilles and the Netherlands all equal partners within the kingdom and it made the home nation responsible for the defense of the islands of the Antilles and Suriname.  It also made Curacao the seat of government for the Dutch Antilles.  The riots of 1969 brought into question on whether or not the Statuut should be taken further with full autonomy given to the former colonies involved.  This debate would continue for decades and came to a head in the 1990's.  Aruba, in name, was given full independence.  Curacao still remains an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.  The home Kingdom is still responsible for the defense and the foreign affairs of the island.

Today, tourism is the main source of income for the island of Curacao.  The islands coral reefs and beaches attract divers and swimmers.  The harbor in Willemstad is still the largest in the Caribbean allowing for large cargo ships to moor on the island.  This allows Curacao to remain a commercial center in the Caribbean.  The largest desalination plant in the Caribbean resides in Curacao.  The oil refinery that had pushed Curacao into an economic boom was sold in the 1980's and has been the subject of lawsuits because of environmental reasons.  The oil industry in Curacao is not as lucrative as past years.  Racial tensions still remain as emigration and immigration still are a problem that the home Kingdom still tries to regulate.  This attempt at regulation continues to strain the relationship between Curacao and the Netherlands.

Sources:
 Brushaber, Susan, and Arnold Greenberg. 2002. Aruba, Bonaire & Curacao Alive!. Hunter Publishing, 2002. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed November 27, 2011).

Paul K. Sutton,  Europe and the Caribbean.  London : Macmillan Caribbean, 1991

Post Slavery Curacao

Slavery in the Caribbean was a very large industry.  With the growth of cash crop plantations through out the Caribbean, a large labor force was needed.  Curacao was no different.  The island of Curacao itself was used more as a market for goods throughout the Caribbean and as a slave depot.  The slaves that actually lived on the island mostly worked on food plantations that were used to grow food for the island's inhabitants and the large number of slaves on the island being held until their final destination could be determined.

Curacao had it's share of slave revolts, such as that of 1795 when Tula, the famous slave rebel of Curacao, led his revolt against the wealthy land owners of the island.  Despite this revolt, slavery would not end on Curacao until 1863, when King William III of the Netherlands emancipated all slaves in the Dutch Empire.  Slaves numbering nearly 6,700 were granted their freedom on the island of Curacao.  The former slaves would be free in decree but their lives would be changed very little.

This emancipation would lead to the foundation of the "paga-tera," or "pay for the land" system that allowed the former slaves to continue to work on their current plantations in exchange for a small parcel of land, some goods, and a small salary.  The best similar example of this system is that of the post American Civil War system of sharecropping.  This system would eventually lead to an over abundance of workers in the "paga-tera" system as the plantations were not as profitable without the use of slave labor forcing many former slaves out of work. 

Curacao's economy stayed in a steady decline after the slaves were freed, as Curacao's main source of income was that from the slave trade.  This led to an exodus of former slaves off the island to other islands in the Caribbean to find work.  In the greatest example, between 1917 and 1920, 2,500 slave descendents left the island to go work in the sugar fields of Cuba.  Despite the exodus, the "paga-tera" system would remain until the early 20th century. 

Curacao's situation after emancipation of its slaves was not unlike that of many Caribbean islands.  It's newly freed population found itself almost in the same situation it was in before.  They had very little opportunity to better themselves in the system that replaced that of slavery.  Curacao's economy suffered as a consequence and many freed peoples immigrated from the island.

Sources:

2008. Aruba, Bonaire & Curacao Alive Guide, 3rd ed. [electronic resource]. [S.l.] : Hunter Publishing, Inc., 2008., 2008. University of Alabama Libraries’ Classic Catalog, EBSCOhost (accessed November 19, 2011).

Caribseek Curacao.   http://www.caribseek.com/Curacao/curacao-history-the-slave-trade.shtml

The Tale of Rebecca Beecher: A Slave Woman in Curacao

Reader's Note: This story is a complete fiction with a historical basis.  The author has used historical accounts of slave women in the Caribbean to give a fictional account to help describe the life of an slave woman of African descent in the Caribbean.  This article is designed to read as a brief memoir of a slave woman.

My name is Rebecca Jones.  I was given this name by my first owner, Captain Stephen Beecher.  He is the one that taught me to speak, read, and write English.  I can also speak Dutch but cannot read or write it.  I was born at the Asiento slave depot in Curacao in July of 1648.  My mother gave birth to me after being brought from the slave recuperation camp at Chincho Grandi.  She was from the coast of Ghana and had just made the trip across the Atlantic Ocean.  I spent the first 10 years of my life at the slave depot of Asiento.  I mainly was taken care of by the older women at the slave depot as my mother had been sold shortly after my birth.  The man who bought her was Spainard who was a ship owner that lived in the St. Augustine settlement to the far north.  I have never seen my mother.  This was told to me by the women who cared for me when I became older.  They called me Layla.

As I said, my first owner was a British Captain named Stephen Beecher.  He was in command of a merchant vessel in the British Navy.  He bought me when I was nearly 11 years of age and used me as a servant in his cabin and in his travels.  He was an unmarried man of middle age and treated me very well when I was young.  He changed my name to Rebecca Beecher and had me Christened even though I never fully understood nor believed the faith I was given.  He taught me to read, write, and speak English.  I could already speak Dutch.  This was helpful as I ran many errands for him when we were in various British, Dutch, and Spanish ports.

As I grew into a young woman his actions towards me changed.  He would not allow me to leave his cabin on long voyages and would not allow me leave from the ship while we were in port unless I was with him.  He began to behave in certain ways with me that I did not understand at the time.  As a young girl I did not understand the sins I was committing during my time with Captain Beecher.  All I knew was that it made him happy and he treated me well when I did as he commanded.  At the age of 16, I became pregnant.  When I found out, the ship had just docked in Southampton, England.  I did not tell my master.  We stayed in England for months and soon my condition showed.  When my master found out, he beat me mercilessly.  I was very frightened as he had never beaten me before.  He beat me to the point of death yelling that I was to ruin him.  He left me in the care of other slaves that his family owned in Southampton.  They nursed me back to health but I lost my child.  Soon after that Captain Beecher came to gather me and we soon set back on a voyage to the Caribbean.  Captain Beecher soon began to use me as he had before but informed me that he was going to sell me in Willemstad back in on my home island of Curacao.  I was very frightened and begged my master to tell my why I had displeased him so to sell me.  He said he wanted to buy a new cabin girl because I had became too old.

In Willemstad, Captain Beecher sold me to my present owner, Willem Jurrjens.  I have never seen the Captain since.  Mr. Jurrjens was a remaining cattle rancher in the interior of Curacao.  Being able to speak Dutch, I got along well after he bought me.  He was good to me and allowed me to do various jobs.  At first he used me to take care of the cattle and maintain their stalls.  I helped take the cattle to market in Willemstad.  I milked the few dairy cows we had.  I enjoyed this work, as it wasn't as hard as other slave work, but did not enjoy the company of my overseer.  His name was Jacob and he beat us against the will of my master.  It did not take long after my master to see a scar on my back from one of Jacob's beatings that he was dismissed.  Mr. Jurrjens had told me when he bought me that he wanted to use me as a breeder slave as I was one of physical and mental superiority and I had been born in the Caribbean.  However, I never could become pregnant no matter which male slave he put me with.  He would not allow me to marry, as he said that it did not matter as I could not bear children.  Thinking that he was going to sell me I became very scared after I could not get pregnant.  Instead, Mr. Jurrjens allowed to me to become a house slave, caring for his children and later his grandchildren.  I did other domestic chores other than child rearing as I was used to clean, cook, and care for the master's wife's needs.  I was well treated and thankful for it, too.  I had heard of other house slaves that were abused even worse by their owners than the field slaves.  I was thankful for my position and did the best I could.  I remain in this position to this day.  I hope I can stay here my whole life, but fear my fate as Mr. Jurrjens is becoming old.

Sources:

Barbara Bush.  Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650-1838.  Kingston : Heinemann Caribbean ; Bloomington : Indiana University Press, c1990.

Mary Prince.  The History of Mary Prince:  A West Indian Slave Narrative.  Dover Publications, Inc. 2004.

Paul K. Sutton,  Europe and the Caribbean.  London : Macmillan Caribbean, 1991

The True Melting Pot: Race in Curacao

The Americas have been called a "melting pot" of cultures, races, and religions.  The Caribbean exemplifies this metaphor as much as any geographical region in the Americas, maybe even more so.  This area was a center of racial mixing and racial conflict in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries as the European peoples mixed with slaves from Africa and the indigenous peoples of the islands and mainland.  Curacao is no different.  Curacao would see the racial mixing that was common throughout the Caribbean Basin as these three main races mixed and matched. 

Curacao's population today is 165,000.  Of that number, over 50 nationalities are represented.  Catholicism,  Protestant faiths, Judaism, and Islam are all freely practiced on the island today.  The majority of the present day island's population is of Afro-Caribbean, or mulatto, descent with the minorities being of European and Latin American descent.  There is a significant Jewish population on the island as many Jews have fled to the island from persecution and strife abroad as far back as the 17th century and as recently as World War II.  These Jews have had a significant impact on the cultural and economic make up of the island over the years.  The Jewish population on Curacao is one of the oldest in the Americas and the synagogues on the island rank as some of the oldest in the Americas.  In short, Curacao is definitely consistent with the metaphor of a "melting pot" of different peoples and their cultures.  This "melting pot" also had its share of conflict as these peoples came together.

As stated in a previous blog, Curacao was a slave depot in the Caribbean in the 17th and 18th centuries.  This allowed for many Africans and many of African descent to pass through the island to other places of the Caribbean.  This led to an ever growing population of black slaves on the island and led to the government of Curacao at the time to implement the "black and red codes" to curtail certain unrest amongst the black and mulatto populations on the island.  These regulations gave a curfew, forbidding them to be on public streets without a lantern and a permit from their master after 9pm.  It also greatly restricted the use of musical instruments by slaves as music was seen as a way of communication and organization between conspiring parties.  Alcohol consumption by slaves and mulattoes was strictly forbidden.  These were but a few of many new regulations on the colored population of Curacao.  These codes would lead to passive resistance by the slaves and mulattoes eventually exploding into open rebellion in 1795. 

In October of 1795, a force of some 1,500 slaves were led by a slave named Tula in revolt.  The revolt would eventually be quelled and Tula and his officers would be captured, tortured, and executed.  Oddly enough, the present day population commemorate this rebellion on August 17 every year, even though the rebellion accomplished little.  This celebration may mainly speak to the overwhelmingly black population of Curacao's identity with the slaves that participated in the revolt.  Here is the present day monument to the Tula Revolt in Curacao.

Racial mixing and conflict were ever present in the Caribbean during the 17th and 18th centuries as slavery and the slave trade were taking their effect.  Curacao is no different.  As a result, Curacao today is made up of 50 separate nationalities and numerous racial classifications.  This is what makes Curacao a true "melting pot."

Sources:

Brushaber, Susan, and Arnold Greenberg. 2002. Aruba, Bonaire & Curacao Alive!. Hunter Publishing, 2002. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed October 9, 2011).

Goslinga, Cornelis  The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guianas, 1680-1791 (Assen, Netherlands : Van Gorcum, 1990),  529-563.

1994. "Curacao stamped with Africa." American Visions 9, no. 3: 48. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 9, 2011).

Conflict in Curacao: How Strife Influenced the Island in the 17th Century

Curacao in the 17th century was a place of transition and conflict.  Curacao had come to be a strategic and economic stronghold in the Caribbean for whatever European power controlled it.  Curacao was and remains an important port of call for goods being transported to and from South America, the Caribbean, and Europe.  During the 17th century Curacao was also an important slave depot.  These two circumstances made Curacao an coveted possession in the Caribbean for all European powers.  The wars in Europe usually spilled into the Caribbean the desire of different European powers to control Curacao led to conflict and war on the island.

As stated in earlier blog on this site, the Spanish were the first Europeans to discover and colonize Curacao.  The Spanish failed to realize Curacao's importance as a possession in their Caribbean empire, leaving the island lightly guarded.  They did not, however, fail to realize the potential of the island's inhabitants as slaves.  They exploited the Arawak Indians, capturing them and shipping them to silver mines on Hispaniola.  This can be described as strife on the island, as this was the first step to the eventual extinction of the Arawaks on Curacao.  By 1790, there would be no more full blooded Arawak Indians on the island and today there is very little indigenous lineage left on the island. 

Other European powers would recognize Curacao's potential.  The Dutch were the first.  On July 29, 1634, a fleet of six ships and a force 225 soldiers landed on Curacao to claim the island for the Dutch West India Company.  The battle was small, if non existent, as the Spanish quickly surrendered with only 32 soldiers.  They were allowed safe passage back to Europe and some natives were deported to South America as they supported the Spanish.  This action by the Dutch West India Company would shape the island's history going forward, as the Dutch quickly fortified the harbor on the island, built a large town (Willemstad), opened the island to commerce, and encouraged Dutch colonization of the island.  Curacao quickly became a center of trade and remains one to this day.  Willemstad grew between 1676 and 1732 was to remain practically unchanged until 1860. During the early 20th century, Willemstad was the busiest port in the Caribbean.  It remains one of the busiest in the Caribbean today. 

Willemstad's harbor area formed a melting pot of cultures. Seafarers from every corner of the globe gathered here. Crews were paid off after each voyage. It was then up to the men to look after themselves until they could find a new ship. Many seamen lived on Curaçao and most were either slaves, freed slaves or mulattos. Curaçao became the main base for Dutch privateers. The prosperity of the island owed much to these privateers. Moreover, they provided an essential protection against attacks by enemy privateers, something essential during the time when the English and Dutch were at war.

This is a rendition of Dutch ships in an unknown port of call.

This is the former headquarters for the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

England would be the European power that would eventually wrench Curacao from the Dutch, even though it would take them til the 19th century, only to lose it to the Dutch again.  Between 1650 and 1670, England and the Dutch were constantly at or near war. Curacao's monopoly in the slave trade was especially envied by the English empire. Once they had chased the Dutch out of New York in 1665, the English focused their attention on Curacao. They commissioned privateers, or pirates, to harass Dutch commerce in the Caribbean.  This was one main example and seemed to help set a precedent of European powers using pirates, or privateers, to harass an opposing European power in the Caribbean. 

These happenings were the norm for Curacao in the 17th century.  Other European powers, especially England, saw Curacao's importance as a center of commerce and strategic possession in the Caribbean.  This history shapes Curacao today, as these powers policies at the time shaped the culture, population, and physical appearance of Curacao today.

Sources:

 Curacao Port Authority.  Curacao Maritime Museum.  "History."  http://www.curacaomaritime.com/history.htm.

Paul K. Sutton,  Europe and the Caribbean.  London : Macmillan Caribbean, 1991.

Dutch and Spanish Influence on the Early History of Curacao

The early history of Curacao is a varied and complicated one.  It was discovered by the Spanish and later taken by the Dutch.  Both exploited the natives on the island as slaves, and early on, the island was center in the Caribbean for the slave trade.  It would later become of strategic value in the Caribbean for the trade coming from South America into the Caribbean which led to European powers to fight for control of the island for years, with it exchanging hands on a number of occasions.  It remains in Dutch hands til the present day. 

Curacao was discovered by Europeans in 1499 when Alonso de Ojeda, a Spainard and Lieutenant of Christopher Columbus, happened upon the island.  The island was considered of little importance by the Spanish at the time as there was no gold or mineral deposits.  However, they would eventually use the island for another large revenue generating activity: the slave trade. 

In 1505, Spanish Indieros settled on the island.  These Spaniards made their living in the slave trade.  They exported at least 2,000 indigenous people from Curacao, probably mostly all Arawak indians to Hispaniola to work in the Spanish silver mines on that island.  This plus the Columbian Exchange had a decimating effect on the native population of the island.  By the beginning of the 18th century, Curacao was one of the most important slave depots on the island, with as many as 14,000 slaves on the island at any given time and 40% of the slaves coming across the Atlantic would come to Curacao at some point in their shipment.  Who the ruling European power seems to be inconsequential, as all who ruled the island used it mostly as a slave depot.  This led to an even diluted indigenous population.  By 1790, the entire population of Arawak indians on Curacao would be extinct.

On July 29, 1634, Curacao would fall into Dutch hands.  The Dutch West India Company would send Johann Van Walbeek, a fleet of six ships and 225 soldiers to conquer the island from the Spanish.  It was easily conquered as the island was manned by only small garrison of Spanish soldiers.  The Dutch would fortify the island and allow the island to remain an important slave depot.

The society of the island would have three main groups of people at this time:  Western Europeans,  Sephardic Jews, and black slaves.  The Sephardic Jews had fled Brazil in 1654 and quickly became very important merchants and business men on the island and within the Caribbean itself.  As well as a slave depot, Curacao was a important port for goods coming out of South America being shipped to Europe.  The Brittish and French would be reliant on Dutch and Jewish merchants to move these goods along, so much so that they tried to take the island from the Dutch on a number of occasions.

Between 1650 and 1670, England was regularly at odds with the Dutch. Curacao's monopoly in the slave trade was especially irritating to the English. Once they had chased the Dutch out of New York in 1665, the English focused their attention on Curacao. They commissioned privateers, or pirates, to harass their Dutch enemy. Towards the close of the eighteenth century, the French occupied the Dutch Republic in Europe. The French navy was soon using Curacao as a harbor, and the island paid the cost. Moreover, the British, who were at war with France, blockaded the trade of the island.  The government on Curacao was ready to expel the French.  The island government was even prepared to accept British dominion. From 1800 to 1803 and from 1807 to 1816 Curacao was administered by the British. The Dutch regained the island in 1816. Meanwhile, the Dutch Republic had become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with its own Royal Dutch Navy.

Curacao's early history is a turbulent one.  It transformed from a peaceful island of Arawak Indians, with 15 villages spread around the island, to a European slave depot and war zone.  The natives of the island would become all but extinct.  It would exchange hands amongst the European powers on a number of occasions, with the Dutch retaining the island from 1816 til today. 


Sources:

Brushaber, Susan, and Arnold Greenberg. 2002. Aruba, Bonaire & Curacao Alive!. Hunter Publishing, 2002. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed September 18, 2011).

 Curacao Port Authority.  Curacao Maritime Museum.  "History."  http://www.curacaomaritime.com/history.htm.

Paul K. Sutton,  Europe and the Caribbean.  London : Macmillan Caribbean, 1991.

According to Jair: The Arawak Influence on Curacao

Jair Jansen is a guest blogger on Island of Healing.  He was born and raised on Curacao and will be giving the blog a first hand account of the general history, culture, and issues of his home island from time to time.

Hey guys, it's Jair Jansen again and I'm glad to be back again to tell you more about my beautiful home, the island of Curacao.  Today I will be discussing the native inhabitants of Curacao, a branch of the Arawak speaking people who migrated from South America to throughout the Caribbean, including Curacao.

As I stated in an earlier blog, the Caiquetio tribe of Native Americans are considered the earliest people on the island of Curacao.  They were stated by the Spanish explorers to be giants.  They were not, however, an isolated tribe but a branch of Arawak speaking people that migrated from deep in the Amazon in South America and settled throughout the Caribbean basin, including the Lesser and Greater Antilles. They
include the Taíno, from the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas; the Nepoya and Suppoyo, from Trinidad and the Igneri; and the Lokono. The Arawak language was the most used in the Pre-Columbian Americas.  Before the arrival of the Spanish they were driven from the Lesser Antilles by the Carib Indians, who were a constant threat and enemy of the peaceful Arawaks.  The Arawaks would suffer greatly throughout the Caribbean from the Columbian Exchange, with some groups on different islands, including Curacao, being completely wiped out by disease and European political policies.

 The Arawak speaking peoples of the Caribbean are thought to be peaceful traders, using slow, ocean going canoes.  They traded fruit and other goods, such as elaborately decorated pottery, throughout the Caribbean and as far north as the Bahamas.  On Christopher Columbus's historic discovery of the New World for Europe on October 12, 1492, the first native peoples he encountered were an Arawak speaking people in the Bahamas.  He mistakenly called them "indians," thinking he had reached India.  This is a picture of Columbus on probably Hispaniola with Arawak natives.

As stated before, the Arawaks were a peace loving people that were mostly interested in trade, religious practices, and agriculture.  They were constantly harassed by the Caribs who enslaved captured Arawaks and were even rumored to eat captured male Arawaks.  This did not hinder their trade amongst themselves in the Caribbean as they had developed large, ocean going canoes.  Europeans reported that Arawaks were not very concerned with clothing and often were naked.  They were farmers, hunters, and fishers.  They developed farming practices that kept their yields high, such as slow burning underbrush and using fish remains to fertilize the soil they were tilling for farming.  This allowed for population booms and large villages.  Scholars state that they believe that a large Arawak village would be surrounded by large, organized farming fields.  Their dwellings were circular huts that surrounded a large, central religious building used for idol worship and it is where the religious leaders probably lived.  A picture of a Taino dwelling can be see here.

 Their religious practices were shamanistic, or there was a religious hierarchy that was headed by a shaman, or witch doctor.  They are believed to have a very visible distinction between chiefs, shamen, and commoners. Chiefs wore special body adornments, including feathers, shells, and rare stones.  This a picture of a probable Arawak chief or shaman.

The Arawak worshiped idols or icons called "zemis," which is believed to usually had some type of ancestral religious value.  Some may have just been "good luck charms."  Curiously, women were not allowed to see the zemis.  Christopher Columbus thought the Arawaks would be easily converted to Christianity since he believed "they have no religion."  Arawaks worshiping zemis can be seen in this picture.

The Arawaks had something to contribute to American culture as well, as the "bar b que" was a common practice of the Arawaks.  One can be seen in this picture.

Thank you again for allowing me to tell you a general history of my home, Curacao.  The Arawak natives had a strong influence on Curacao and the Caribbean as a whole, even after they had disappeared in many places.  It pains me to say that very little lineage of the original Caiquetio inhabitants on Curacao still remain.  This is common in the Caribbean.  There is very little if any remaining lineage of the Taino branch of the Arawaks in the Bahamas, which was the first natives to encounter Columbus.  I look forward to talking to you again and telling you more about Curacao.

Sources:

Sepehri, Sandy. 2009. "Arawak." Rourke's Native American History & Culture Encyclopedia no. 1: 18-19. Book Collection: Nonfiction, EBSCOhost (accessed September 11, 2011).


Symcox, Geoffrey, and Blair Sullivan. 2005. Christopher Columbus and the enterprise of the Indies : a brief history with documents / Geoffrey Symcox and Blair Sullivan. Boston, MA : Bedford/St. Martin's, c2005., 2005.

Tennesen, Michael. 2010. "Uncovering the Arawaks." Archaeology 63, no. 5: 51-56. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed September 11, 2011).